Race, Power, Privilege, A Critical Analysis of Systematic Racism
DOI:
10.56566/mandalika.v4i1.441Downloads
Abstract
This paper critically analyzes complex interactions between power, privilege, and race in the context of institutionalized racism, highlighting the structural and historical dimensions of racial disparities that continue to perpetuate racial inequality. Based on a comprehensive review of the literature and an online search, the study examines how power relations benefit majority racial groups, privilege is exercised as an unseen benefit, and institutionalized racism extends to a range of societal institutions, such as schools, hospitals, workplaces, and the criminal justice system. One of the most important findings of this study is that systemic racism is historically entrenched. It was colonialism, slavery, and institutional discrimination that created foundations for racial hierarchies that continue to influence contemporary power dynamics. These historical injustices have become ingrained in legal systems, policy, and societal norms, therefore resulting in long-lasting inequalities. The research also uncovers the role of privilege in sustaining these disparities. Privilege allows certain racial groups to live life with unearned advantages, at times even without their owners' knowledge, while marginalized groups face perpetual obstacles. This privilege encompasses access to education, economic opportunities, and equal treatment under the law, sustaining cycles of disadvantage.
Keywords:
Critical analysis Power Privilege RaceReferences
Adamson, M., Kelan, E., Lewis, P., Śliwa, M., & Rumens, N. (2021). Introduction: Critically interrogating inclusion in organisations. Organization, 28(2), 211–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508420973307
Ali, R., & Salam-Salmaoui, R. (2024). Whiteness as currency: Exploring racial ideologies in Pakistan’s English language teaching sphere. International Journal of Educational Research, 128, 102483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2024.102483
Aouragh, M. (2019). ‘White privilege’ and shortcuts to anti-racism. Race & Class, 61(2), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396819874629
Ashik, F., Marc Lim, W., Vassallo, J. P., & Voola, R. (2025). Can marketing reduce inequality? Evidence from marketing science. Journal of Business Research, 188, 115053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.115053
Babu, Y., Mishra, P., Kumar, A., Pandey, C. S., & Pandey, S. (2025). Epistemic injustices and curriculum: Strategizing for justice. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 11, 101220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101220
Banaji, M. R., Fiske, S. T., & Massey, D. S. (2021). Systemic racism: Individuals and interactions, institutions and society. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 6(1), 82. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00349-3
Barnes, L., Hall, P. A., & Taylor, R. C. R. (2023). The Structural Sources of Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health: A Cross-National Perspective. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 9. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231231174832
Beard, S., Freeman, K., Velasco, M. L., Boyd, W., Chamberlain, T., Latoni, A., Lasko, D., Lunn, R. M., O’Fallon, L., Packenham, J., Smarr, M. M., Arnette, R., Cavalier-Keck, C., Keck, J., Muhammad, N., Wilson, O., Wilson, B., Wilson, A., & Dixon, D. (2024). Racism as a public health issue in environmental health disparities and environmental justice: Working toward solutions. Environmental Health, 23(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-024-01052-8
Bermúdez Figueroa, E., Dabetić, V., Yuste, R. P., & Saeidzadeh, Z. (2023). Gender and Structural Inequalities from a Socio-Legal Perspective. In D. Vujadinović, M. Fröhlich, & T. Giegerich (Eds.), Gender-Competent Legal Education (pp. 95–142). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14360-1_4
Brablec, D., Mann, R., & Feilzer, M. (2025). Social reproduction and contestation of racialized Roma exclusion: The role of civil society organizations in the Czech Republic. Journal of Civil Society, 21(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/17448689.2024.2427162
Cappiali, T. M. (2023). A Paradigm Shift for a More Inclusive, Equal, and Just Academia? Towards a Transformative-Emancipatory Pedagogy. Education Sciences, 13(9), 876. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13090876
Collins, P. Y., Sinha, M., Concepcion, T., Patton, G., Way, T., McCay, L., Mensa-Kwao, A., Herrman, H., De Leeuw, E., Anand, N., Atwoli, L., Bardikoff, N., Booysen, C., Bustamante, I., Chen, Y., Davis, K., Dua, T., Foote, N., Hughsam, M., … Zeitz, L. (2024). Making cities mental health friendly for adolescents and young adults. Nature, 627(8002), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-07005-4
Dwivedi, P., Basuthakur, Y., Polineni, S., Paruchuri, S., & Joshi, A. (2025). A Stakeholder Perspective on Diversity Within Organizations. Journal of Management, 51(1), 383–426. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063241280718
Elias, A., & Paradies, Y. (2021). The Costs of Institutional Racism and its Ethical Implications for Healthcare. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, 18(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11673-020-10073-0
El-Saadani, S., Metwally, S., & Abdelaziz, W. (2024). Does the pattern of ICT possession exacerbate inequality in educational opportunities between students with and without disabilities? Evidence from Egypt. Review of Economics and Political Science. https://doi.org/10.1108/REPS-11-2022-0098
Eriksen, S., Schipper, E. L. F., Scoville-Simonds, M., Vincent, K., Adam, H. N., Brooks, N., Harding, B., Khatri, D., Lenaerts, L., Liverman, D., Mills-Novoa, M., Mosberg, M., Movik, S., Muok, B., Nightingale, A., Ojha, H., Sygna, L., Taylor, M., Vogel, C., & West, J. J. (2021). Adaptation interventions and their effect on vulnerability in developing countries: Help, hindrance or irrelevance? World Development, 141, 105383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105383
Fibbi, R., Midtbøen, A. H., & Simon, P. (2021). Theories of Discrimination. In R. Fibbi, A. H. Midtbøen, & P. Simon, Migration and Discrimination (pp. 21–41). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67281-2_3
Fotaki, M., & Pullen, A. (2024). Feminist Theories and Activist Practices in Organization Studies. Organization Studies, 45(4), 593–616. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231209861
Galkienė, A., & Monkevičienė, O. (2021). Preconditions of Transforming the Educational Process by Applying Inclusive Education Strategies: Theoretical Background. In A. Galkienė & O. Monkevičienė (Eds.), Improving Inclusive Education through Universal Design for Learning (Vol. 5, pp. 1–21). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80658-3_1
Green, F., & Healy, N. (2022). How inequality fuels climate change: The climate case for a Green New Deal. One Earth, 5(6), 635–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.05.005
Grzelec, A. (2024). Doing gender equality and undoing gender inequality—A practice theory perspective. Gender, Work & Organization, 31(3), 749–767. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12935
Gururaj, S., Somers, P., Fry, J., Watson, D., Cicero, F., Morosini, M., & Zamora, J. (2021). Affirmative action policy: Inclusion, exclusion, and the global public good. Policy Futures in Education, 19(1), 63–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210320940139
Hanasono, L. K., Ro, H. K., O’Neil, D. A., Broido, E. M., Yacobucci, M. M., Peña, S., & Root, K. V. (2022). Communicating privilege and faculty allyship. Communication Quarterly, 70(5), 560–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2022.2099294
Hswen, Y., Qin, Q., Williams, D. R., Viswanath, K., Brownstein, J. S., & Subramanian, S. V. (2020). The relationship between Jim Crow laws and social capital from 1997–2014: A 3-level multilevel hierarchical analysis across time, county and state. Social Science & Medicine, 262, 113142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113142
Intungane, D., Long, J., Gateri, H., & Dhungel, R. (2024). Employment Barriers for Racialized Immigrants: A Review of Economic and Social Integration Support and Gaps in Edmonton, Alberta. Genealogy, 8(2), 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy8020040
Jackson, A., Yerena, A., Lee, C. A., Garcia-Zambrana, I., Chrisinger, B., Harjo, L., & Harwood, S. (2023). Anti-Racist Futures: Disrupting Racist Planning Practices in Workplaces, Institutions, and Communities: Introduction to the Special Issue. Journal of the American Planning Association, 89(4), 411–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2023.2244850
Jiao, L. (2024). Social Determinants of Health, Diet, and Health Outcome. Nutrients, 16(21), 3642. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16213642
Kakwata, F. (2024). Perspective Chapter: Determinative Factors for Bridging Social Inequality Gaps – A South African Perspective. In Sustainable Development (Vol. 21). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004765
Kaziboni, A. (2022). Apartheid Racism and Post-apartheid Xenophobia: Bridging the Gap. In P. Rugunanan & N. Xulu-Gama (Eds.), Migration in Southern Africa (pp. 201–213). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92114-9_14
Kraus, M. W., Onyeador, I. N., Daumeyer, N. M., Rucker, J. M., & Richeson, J. A. (2019). The Misperception of Racial Economic Inequality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(6), 899–921. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619863049
Kuran, C. H. A., Morsut, C., Kruke, B. I., Krüger, M., Segnestam, L., Orru, K., Nævestad, T. O., Airola, M., Keränen, J., Gabel, F., Hansson, S., & Torpan, S. (2020). Vulnerability and vulnerable groups from an intersectionality perspective. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 50, 101826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101826
Lesutis, G. (2023). Enduring Colonial Grammars of Self: Infrastructure, Coloniality, Ethnicity. Antipode, 55(6), 1781–1801. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12947
Marou, V., Vardavas, C. I., Aslanoglou, K., Nikitara, K., Plyta, Z., Leonardi-Bee, J., Atkins, K., Condell, O., Lamb, F., & Suk, J. E. (2024). The impact of conflict on infectious disease: A systematic literature review. Conflict and Health, 18(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-023-00568-z
Matamoros-Fernández, A., & Farkas, J. (2021). Racism, Hate Speech, and Social Media: A Systematic Review and Critique. Television & New Media, 22(2), 205–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476420982230
Maussen, M. (2023). A post-colonial reading of Alexis de Tocqueville’s writings on slavery and its aftermaths. Ethnicities, 23(6), 801–821. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687968231192036
McAuliffe, P. (2023). Opening the black box: Socio-economic rights and the question of political will. Australian Journal of Human Rights, 29(2), 314–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/1323238X.2023.2292938
Mosley, T. J., Zajdel, R. A., Alderete, E., Clayton, J. A., Heidari, S., Pérez-Stable, E. J., Salt, K., & Bernard, M. A. (2025). Intersectionality and diversity, equity, and inclusion in the healthcare and scientific workforces. The Lancet Regional Health - Americas, 41, 100973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2024.100973
Müller, J., Striebing, C., & Schraudner, M. (2022). Diversity and Discrimination in Research Organizations: Theoretical Starting Points. In Diversity and Discrimination in Research Organizations (pp. 3–30). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80117-956-020221001
Naim, A. (2025). Equity across the educational spectrum: Innovations in educational access crosswise all levels. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1499642. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1499642
Parolin, Z., & Lee, E. K. (2022). The Role of Poverty and Racial Discrimination in Exacerbating the Health Consequences of COVID-19. The Lancet Regional Health-Americas, 7, 100178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2021.100178
Patterson, J. J., Thaler, T., Hoffmann, M., Hughes, S., Oels, A., Chu, E., Mert, A., Huitema, D., Burch, S., & Jordan, A. (2018). Political feasibility of 1.5°C societal transformations: The role of social justice. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 31, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2017.11.002
Plaisime, M. V., Jipguep-Akhtar, M.-C., & Belcher, H. M. E. (2023). ‘White People are the default’: A qualitative analysis of medical trainees’ perceptions of cultural competency, medical culture, and racial bias. SSM - Qualitative Research in Health, 4, 100312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmqr.2023.100312
Rad, J. (2025). Health inequities: A persistent global challenge from past to future. International Journal for Equity in Health, 24(1), 148. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-025-02526-y
Rocha, Z. L., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (2022). Hierarchies of mixedness: Hybridity, mixed-race racisms and belonging for Eurasians in Singapore. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 45(4), 738–756. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2021.1921235
Simson, R. (2024). Colonial legacies and wealth inequality in Kenya. Explorations in Economic History, 94, 101623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2024.101623
Smith, E. K., & Matthews, I. (2025). The enduring presence of ‘Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels’: An anti-colonial analysis. Settler Colonial Studies, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2025.2488090
Suyemoto, K. L., Curley, M., & Mukkamala, S. (2020). What Do We Mean by “Ethnicity” and “Race”? A Consensual Qualitative Research Investigation of Colloquial Understandings. Genealogy, 4(3), 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy4030081
Tayefi Nasrabadi, M., Larimian, T., Timmis, A., & Yigitcanlar, T. (2024). Mapping four decades of housing inequality research: Trends, insights, knowledge gaps, and research directions. Sustainable Cities and Society, 113, 105693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2024.105693
Vogel, J., Steinberger, J. K., O’Neill, D. W., Lamb, W. F., & Krishnakumar, J. (2021). Socio-economic conditions for satisfying human needs at low energy use: An international analysis of social provisioning. Global Environmental Change, 69, 102287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102287
Wang, Y. (2022). A conceptual framework of contemporary luxury consumption. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 39(3), 788–803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2021.10.010
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Rashed Ahmed
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format for any purpose, even commercially.
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
Notices:
You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation.
No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
